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2013年10月5日星期六

Well-connected hemispheres of Einstein's brain may have sparked his brilliance

"This study, more than any other to date, really gets at the 'inside' of Einstein's brain," Falk said. "It provides new information that helps make sense of what is known about the surface of Einstein's brain."

The study, "The Corpus Callosum of Albert Einstein's Brain: Another Clue to His High Intelligence," was published in the journal Brain. Lead author Weiwei Men of East China Normal University's Department of Physics developed a new technique to conduct the study, which is the first to detail Einstein's corpus callosum, the brain's largest bundle of fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric communication.

"This technique should be of interest to other researchers who study the brain's all-important internal connectivity," Falk said.

Men's technique measures and color-codes the varying thicknesses of subdivisions of the corpus callosum along its length, where nerves cross from one side of the brain to the other. These thicknesses indicate the number of nerves that cross and therefore how "connected" the two sides of the brain are in particular regions, which facilitate different functions depending on where the fibers cross along the length. For example, movement of the hands is represented toward the front and mental arithmetic along the back.

In particular, this new technique permitted registration and comparison of Einstein's measurements with those of two samples -- one of 15 elderly men and one of 52 men Einstein's age in 1905. During his so-called "miracle year" at 26 years old, Einstein published four articles that contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed the world's views about space, time, mass and energy.

The research team's findings show that Einstein had more extensive connections between certain parts of his cerebral hemispheres compared to both younger and older control groups.

The research of Einstein's corpus callosum was initiated by Men, who requested the high-resolution photographs that Falk and other researchers published in 2012 of the inside surfaces of the two halves of Einstein's brain. In addition to Men, the current research team included Falk, who served as second author; Tao Sun of the Washington University School of Medicine; and, from East China Normal University's Department of Physics, Weibo Chen, Jianqi Li, Dazhi Yin, Lili Zang and Mingxia Fan.

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2013年10月4日星期五

Business Silicon doctoring at Imec

2013/10/04

Putting medical quality data in consumers’ hands is a key research area of Imec, Jo de Broeck, CTO of Imec, told the IEF 2013 meeting in Dublin.

As with most things chip-based, the technology scales. In 2001 it cost $1 billion to sequence a genome, said de Broeck, now it costs $100.

Imec is working with Pacific Biosciences to develop ICs for single molecule sequencing applications.

Sequencing is becoming a diagnostic tool for applications like early cancer diagnosis, therapy monitoring and surgery monitoring.

Sequencing requires massively parallel sequencing technology for ultra-deep sequencing which delivers answers in hours.

The prize for succeeding in this area is huge cost savings for governments. The USA spends 17.4% of GDP on healthcare, Europe spends 9.6 % and Japan spends 8.5%.

“Reducing diabetes and hypertension levels by 5 % would save $9 billion annually,” said de Broeck.

The worldwide cost of treating diabetes is $400 billion a year and the cost of treating heart disease is $1.6 trillion.

Imec is also developing neuroprobes for measuring neuro-degenerative disease. Here performance is doubling every seven years, said de Broeck.

The hunt at Imec is to understand Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Depression, Schizophrenia, Epilepsy, Anorexia, Blindness, Deafness and Strokes.

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Business Plessey goes for $200bn a year market

2013/10/04

Michael Le Goff, CEO of Plessey, told Future Horizons’ IEF2013 in Dublin, about the huge challenges and huge opportunities of being in the LED business.

On the one hand, he’s competing with Osram, Bridgelux, Toshiba and Samsung. On the other hand LEDs are expected to be a $200 billion a year annual market in 2020.

“There are huge players in the market but we were first to market with GaN-on-silicon LEDs,” said Le Goff.

The best thing about the market is its immense potential. Between now snd 2020, it is expected that 182 billion LEDs will be required.

By 2020, LEDs are expected to represent 46% of the global lighting market sabing 5 trillion kWh of electricity representing 489 billion in energy costs.

Plessey’s GaN-on-Si on s ix inch wafers in a gully depreciated fab is a cheaper alternative than the SiC on 2″ and 4″ wafers and the sapphire substrates used by competitors.

Asked if his technology could compete with the 8″ GaN-on-silicon production of Toshia, Le Goff replied: “Certainly we see running on eight inch is better but it depends on which manufacturing assets you have available.” he added: “We have started experimentation on eight inch silicon substrates.”

Having entered the market this year, Plessey’s focus is now on product improvement and reduction in cost. Product improvement will come from making the die area more efficient. The cost asprstion is to get to $0.15 per 100 Lm by 2015. Currently it’s $0.25 per 100 Lm.

“Our challenge,” said Le Goff, ” is to make LED manufacture as high yielding as manufacturing a simple diode using existing, available semiconductor assets,”

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Business Foundries have 53% capex-to-sales ratio

2013/10/03

The total capital outlays by the Big 4 pure-play foundries are forecast to be $16.6 billion in 2013, which would represent 53% of their combined sales, says IC Insights, which far exceeds the industry average of 18% capital-spending-to-sales ratio.

tsmc The Big 4’s capital spending as a percent of “final sales” is forecast to be 24% in 2013, still well above industry average.

A few years ago, TSMC stated that it planned to keep its capital spending at about 20% of its sales, but that was before GlobalFoundries and Samsung brought competitive pressure to the market and started chipping away at TSMC’s business.

TSMC spent $5.9 billion in capital spending in 2010 (a budget that was increased twice in the first half of the year), an all-time record amount of capital spending for the company at that time. TSMC spent $8.3 billion in capital expenditures in 2012 and plans to further increase its capex spending to $10.0 billion in 2013.

It appears that TSMC will be aggressive in its marketshare fight with GlobalFoundries and Samsung and is likely to greatly exceed its 20% of sales goal for capital spending outlays over the next few years.

The question with regard to the expected combined 2011-2013 IC foundry spending by the Big 4 pure-play suppliers ($46.3 billion) is whether it is too much.

The “final sales” capital-spending-to-sales ratio of the major foundries was a relatively low 14-15% in 2005-2007 before falling to only 9% in 2008 and 12% in 2009. In 2010, this figure rose to 23%, a level not seen since the boom year of 2004. Spurred by the surge in capital spending by TSMC and GlobalFoundries, this figure rose to 30% in 2011.

For 2012, the capital spending as a percent of sales figure for the Big 4 foundries dropped back to a more “reasonable” 24%, with the same percentage expected for 2013. Given the major foundries high capacity utilization levels for leading-edge device production, it appears that current spending levels are warranted and should not lead to significant overcapacity issues.

With demand for IC foundry services from fabless and fab-lite IDM companies expected to be high over the next five years, there is little doubt that demand for IC foundry production will remain strong.

Overall, IC Insights believes that the pure-play foundry market will further divide into the leading-edge IC foundries like TSMC, GlobalFoundries, UMC, and Samsung, and the specialty foundries like TowerJazz, X-Fab, etc.

Thus, the vast majority of future foundry capital spending can still be expected to come from the small group of major foundries targeting leading-edge IC production.

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Bright nearby double star Fomalhaut is actually a triple

Oct. 3, 2013 — The nearby star system Fomalhaut -- of special interest for its unusual exoplanet and dusty debris disk -- has been discovered to be not just a double star, as astronomers had thought, but one of the widest triple stars known.

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In a paper recently accepted for publication in the Astronomical Journal, researchers show that a previously known smaller star in its vicinity is also part of the Fomalhaut system.

Eric Mamajek, associate professor of physics and astronomy at the University of Rochester, and his collaborators found the triple nature of the star system through a bit of detective work. "I noticed this third star a couple of years ago when I was plotting the motions of stars in the vicinity of Fomalhaut for another study," Mamajek said. "However I needed to collect more data and gather a team of co-authors with different observations to test whether the star's properties are consistent with being a third member of the Fomalhaut system."

Serendipity also played a part. A chance meeting in Chile between Mamajek and Todd Henry, from Georgia State University and director of the Research Consortium On Nearby Stars (RECONS) team, revealed a clue that helped solve the mystery: the distance to the star. Henry recalls sitting in the kitchen of a motel in La Serena, Chile, with Mamajek, discussing nearby stars. "Eric was playing detective on this third star and I just happened to be sitting there with an observing list that contained the unpublished parallax," Henry said. Parallax is a type of measurement astronomers use to determine distances. "A student at the time, Jennifer Bartlett at the University of Virginia, was working with us on a sample of potentially nearby stars for her Ph.D. thesis, and LP876-10 was on it. Eric and I got to talking, and here we are with a cool discovery."

By carefully analyzing astrometric (precise movements) and spectroscopic measurements (that allow the temperature and radial velocity to be determined), the researchers were able to measure the distance and speed of the third star. They concluded that the star, until recently known as LP 876-10, is part of the Fomalhaut system, making it Fomalhaut C.

"Fomalhaut C looks quite far apart from the big, bright star that is Fomalhaut A when you look up at the sky from Earth," added Mamajek. There are roughly 5.5 degrees between the two stars, which is as if they were separated by roughly 11 full moons for an observer on Earth. Mamajek explained that they look this far apart, in part, because Fomalhaut is relatively close to Earth as stars go -- approximately 25 light years. If these stars were far away from Earth, they would appear much closer together in the sky. That they appear so far apart could explain why the connection between LP 876-10 and Fomalhaut had been previously missed. Being able to obtain high quality astrometric and velocity data were the other keys.

The researchers also had to show that it would be feasible for these two stars to be bound, rather than moving independently. "Fomalhaut A is such a massive star, about twice the mass of our Sun, that it can exert sufficient gravitational pull to keep this tiny star bound to it -- despite the star being 158,000 times farther away from Fomalhaut than the Earth is from the Sun," Mamajek said.

Mamajek worked with a large team of collaborators to piece together the story of this interesting tiny star. "Henry and the RECONS team have been doing an exhaustive survey of the "Solar Neighborhood," characterizing the stellar systems that are closest to our solar system and discovering new nearby stars," said Mamajek. "His team had already gathered several years of observations on this particular star -- using the SMARTS 0.9-meter telescope at Cerro Tololo in Chile." The researchers also needed to know the radial velocity of the star, which Andreas Seifahrt from the University of Chicago measured, and which they pinpoint in the paper to be within about one kilometer per second of that of Fomalhaut A.

There are another 11 star systems closer to our Sun than Fomalhaut that consist of three or more stars, including the closest star system, Alpha Centauri. The new measurements in the paper also show that the Fomalhaut system is the most massive and widest among these nearby multiple systems.

Fomalhaut A is also the 18th brightest star visible in our night sky and one of the few stars with both a directly imaged exoplanet and a dusty debris disk. The famous star has been featured in science fiction novels by writers Isaac Asimov, Stanislaw Lem, Philip K. Dick, and Frank Herbert. Despite being a well-studied system, it was only recently confirmed that Fomalhaut was a binary star -- two stars that orbit each other -- although it had been first suggested in the 1890s.

One of Mamajek's colleagues at Rochester, Professor of Physics and Astronomy Alice C. Quillen, has worked for years to understand the way planets shape stellar dust disks like the one surrounding Fomalhaut. In 2006, she predicted the existence of a planet around Fomalhaut, as well as the shape of its orbit, by trying to understand why the debris ring was off-center and why it had a surprisingly sharp edge. The following year a new planet around Fomalhaut was imaged.

Many questions about Fomalhaut A's exoplanet and debris disk still remain unanswered. For example, astronomers are puzzled by why the exoplanet known as Fomalhaut "b" is on such an eccentric orbit and why the debris disk does not appear to be centered on the star Fomalhaut A. It is possible that Fomalhaut's wide companions B and C have gravitationally perturbed the Fomalhaut "b" exoplanet and debris belt orbiting Fomalhaut A, however the orbits of Fomalhaut's companion stars are not well-constrained. The orbits of Fomalhaut B and C around Fomalhaut A are predicted to take millions of years, so pinning down their orbits will be a challenge for future astronomers.

While Fomalhaut C is a red dwarf star -- the most common type of star in the universe -- Fomalhaut B is an orange dwarf star about three-fourths the mass of our Sun. From the vantage point of a hypothetical planet orbiting Fomalhaut C, Fomalhaut A would appear to be a brilliant white star nine times brighter than Sirius (the brightest star in our night sky) appears from Earth, similar to the typical brightness of the planet Venus. Fomalhaut B would appear to be an otherwise unremarkable bright orangish star similar in brightness to Polaris. The age of the trio is about 440 million years -- roughly a 10th of the age of our solar system.

Other collaborators who worked on this paper include Jennifer Bartlett, now at the U.S. Naval Observatory who published a preliminary distance to the star in her Ph.D. thesis, and Matt Kenworthy, from the Leiden Observatory, who measured the rotation period showing Fomalhaut C is a very fast rotator.

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Business IEF2013: Heterogeneous processing is the future, says Imagination

2013/10/03

Tony King-Smith Imagination Technologies Heterogeneous processing is the future, Tony King-Smith, executive v-p at Imagination Technologies, told the Future Horizons IEF 2013 meeting in Dublin this morning.

The vehicle for heterogeneous processing is the system-on-chip (SOC) – the means by which complexity is commoditised.

Within the SOC the architecture has changed. It’s no longer about a CPU controlling peripherals it’s about multiple processors working together, said King-Smith.

“The CPU is now only one of of the processors in the system,” said King-Smith, “it has to operate efficiently with all the other processors which are also high performance engines in their own right as well as being programmable.”

“Understanding how disparate engines work together is fundamental within very tight constraints like bandwidth and power,” added King-Smith.

For instance parallel GPUs have to complement serial CPUs and there are also RPUs (Radio Processing Units) and VPUs (Video Processing Units) to be included in the SOC mix.

Of all these processors, the GPU is becoming the most important.

“The GPU is becoming a bigger and bigger part of the SOC,” said King-Smith, “we expect GPUs to occupy the largest area on many SOCs.”

“GPUs are inherently more scalable than CPUs,” said King-Smith, “GPU processing is increasing at 2x per year for both the high and low end and the envelope of GPU performance between the high end and low end is widening at 2x per year.”

“Power is the ultimate battleground,” said King-Smith, “which will increasingly dominate every major design decision for SOCs.”

He thought that the need for designers is to be creative and to use the whole spectrum of processing options from 130nm to 14/16nm.

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Certain type of fat could help humans lose weight

Oct. 2, 2013 — A diet high in a certain type of fat may actually increase metabolism, according to recent research by Texas Tech University nutrition scientists.

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After studying genetically modified mice, the discovery could lead to supplements and a diet regime that will increase metabolism and decrease muscle fatigue in humans. The research was published in the peer reviewed journal, The Journal of Lipid Research.

Chad Paton, an assistant professor of nutritional biochemistry in the Department of Nutrition, Hospitality and Retailing, said he and colleagues were curious why skeletal muscles of obese people contained a certain type of enzyme that breaks down saturated fats. To test what that enzyme did, Paton's lab and colleagues from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison genetically modified mice so that their muscles would constantly produce the enzyme.

"We used a transgenic mouse model, and we took the gene that makes the enzyme that's not normally expressed and took away it's regulation to make it active all the time," Paton said. "What we found in those animals is they had a hypermetabolic rate compared to the wild mice, increased energy consumption and greatly increased these animals' exercise capacity."

The enzyme, called SCD1, converts saturated fat into monounsaturated fat, which is easier to metabolize. The liver will produce this enzyme depending on the fat content of the food consumed, he said. Fatty adipose tissue produces it all the time as a way of regulating itself.

Only in heavily exercised muscle tissue or in the case of obesity does skeletal muscle produce the enzyme, he said.

After looking at skeletal muscles of the genetically modified mice compared to that of the wild mice, Paton and his team discovered higher levels of polyunsaturated fats, particularly linoleic acid, gotten only through diet.

Higher levels of linoleic acid could only mean one thing -- the modified mice were eating more food. But Paton's team found that the modified mice weighed less than the wild mice. On top of that, their ability to exercise increased.

"We found in the genetically modified animals that they had a hypermetabolic rate," he said. "They were increasing their energy consumption, and they experienced greatly increased exercise capacity. For example, on the exercise wheels, normal mice fatigue after 7 to 10 minutes. These genetically modified animals wouldn't fatigue for about 70 minutes. So they were running a lot longer. Sedentary mice looked more like exercise-trained mice. That really made us look in a lot more detail what was happening in the skeletal muscle." By looking at the muscle tissues, Paton and his team members discovered a trend.

More of the SCD1 enzyme and a greater appetite by the mice meant more linoleic acid in the tissues. The linoleic acid switched on part of the muscle cell's DNA that encouraged the cells to make more mitochondria and to turn on a protein that encouraged the cell to burn off excess energy from the extra food as heat -- a process called uncoupling.

Humans store unused energy as fat, Paton said. And while that helped our ancestors survive, it can lead to obesity for some people in today's world of plentiful food.

While genetically modifying humans isn't an option, Paton said this experiment could hold useful information for supplementing human diets to achieve the same results.

"That's where we have taken our research from this," he said. "You can't change the human genome, but that gives us insight if you could activate the same part of the DNA in human in skeletal muscles that burn off excess energy as heat instead of storing it. Perhaps it's a supplement people could take that will turn on the cells' metabolic machinery burn off energy and increase mitochondria."

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Sieving through 'junk' DNA reveals disease-causing genetic mutations

The new method designed by the team, described in the journal Science, identified these variants in the under-explored regions of DNA that do not code for proteins, but instead influence activity of other genes. As even more whole genome sequences become available, this approach can be applied to find any potential disease-causing variant in the non-coding regions of the genome.

Researchers can now identify DNA regions within non-coding DNA, the major part of the genome that is not translated into a protein, where mutations can cause diseases such as cancer.

Their approach reveals many potential genetic variants within non-coding DNA that drive the development of a variety of different cancers. This approach has great potential to find other disease-causing variants.

Unlike the coding region of the genome where our 23,000 protein-coding genes lie, the non-coding region -- which makes up 98% of our genome -- is poorly understood. Recent studies have emphasised the biological value of the non-coding regions, previously considered 'junk' DNA, in the regulation of proteins. This new information provides a starting point for researchers to sieve through the non-coding regions and identify the most functionally important regions.

"Our technique allows scientists to focus in on the most functionally important parts of the non-coding regions of the genome," says Professor Mark Gerstein, senior author from the University of Yale. "This is not just beneficial for cancer research, but can be extended to other genetic diseases too."

The team used the full set of genetic variants from the first phase of the 1000 Genomes Project, together with information about the non-coding regions generated by the ENCODE Project, and identified regions that did not accumulate much variation.

Protein-coding genes play a crucial role in human survival and fitness, and are under strong 'purifying' selection, which removes variation. The team found that some non-coding DNA regions showed almost the same low levels of variation as protein-coding genes, and called these 'ultrasensitive' regions.

Within the ultrasensitive regions, they looked at specific single DNA letters that, when altered, caused the greatest disturbance to the genetic region. If this non-coding, ultrasensitive region is central to a network of many related genes, variation can cause a greater knock-on effect, resulting in disease.

They integrated all this information to develop a computer workflow known as FunSeq. This system prioritises genetic variants in the non-coding regions based on their predicted impact on human disease.

"Our method is a practical and successful way to screen for purifying selection in non-coding regions of the genome using freely available data such as those from the ENCODE and 1000 Genomes Projects," says Dr Yali Xue, author from the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. "It really shows the value of these large-scale open access data-sets."

The team applied FunSeq to 90 cancer genomes including breast cancer, prostate cancer and brain tumours, and found nearly 100 potential non-coding cancer driving variants. In the breast cancer genomes, for example, they found a single DNA letter change that seems to have great impact on the development of breast cancer. This single letter change occurs in an ultrasensitive region that is central to a network of many related genes.

"Although we see that the first effective use of our tool is for cancer genomes, this method can be applied to find any potential disease-causing variant in the non-coding regions of the genome," says Dr Chris Tyler-Smith, lead author from the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. "We are excited about the vast potential of this method to find further disease-causing, and also beneficial variants, in these crucial but unexplored areas of our genome."

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3-D dynamic imaging of soft materials

Oct. 3, 2013 — Autumn is usually not such a great time for big special effects movies as the summer blockbusters have faded and those for the holiday season have not yet opened. Fall is more often the time for thoughtful films about small subjects, which makes it perfect for the unveiling of a new movie produced by researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)'s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab). Through a combination of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and their own unique graphene liquid cell, the researchers have recorded the three-dimensional motion of DNA connected to gold nanocrystals. This is the first time TEM has been used for 3D dynamic imaging of so-called soft materials.

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"Our demonstration of 3D dynamic imaging goes beyond TEM's conventional use in seeing flat, dry samples and opens many exciting opportunities for studying the dynamics of biological macromolecular assemblies and artificial nanostructures," says physicist Alex Zettl, one of the leaders of this research. "These results were made possible by our novel graphene liquid cell, which can meet the challenges of using TEM to image soft materials."

Zettl, who holds joint appointments with Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division and UC Berkeley's Physics Department where he directs the Center of Integrated Nanomechanical Systems, is one of the co-authors of a paper in NANO Letters describing this research. The paper is titled "3D Motion of DNA-Au Nanoconjugates in Graphene Liquid Cell Electron Microscopy."

Paul Alivisatos, Berkeley Lab Director and UC Berkeley's Samsung Distinguished Chair in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, is the corresponding author. Other authors are Qian Chen, Jessica Smith, Jungwon Park, Kwanpyo Kim, Davy Ho and Haider Rasool.

The term "soft materials" takes in a vast variety of stuff, including DNA, proteins and other biological compounds, plastics, therapeutic drugs, flexible electronics, and certain types of photovoltaics. Despite their ubiquitous presence in our daily lives, soft materials pose many questions because the study of their dynamics at the nanoscale, especially biological systems, has been a challenge. TEM, in which a beam of electrons rather than light is used for illumination and magnification, provides the resolution for such studies but can only be used in a high vacuum as molecules in the air disrupt the electron beam. Since liquids evaporate in high vacuum, samples of soft materials, which have been described as "highly viscous fluids," must be hermetically sealed in special solid containers (called cells) with a viewing window before being imaged with TEM.

In the past, liquid cells featured silicon-based viewing windows whose thickness limited resolution and perturbed the natural state of the soft materials. Zettl and Alivisatos and their respective research groups overcame these limitations with the development of a liquid cell based on a graphene membrane only a single atom thick. This development was done in close cooperation with researchers at the National Center for Electron Microscopy (NCEM), which is located at Berkeley Lab.

"Our graphene liquid cells pushed the spatial resolution of liquid phase TEM imaging to the atomic scale but still focused on growth trajectories of metallic nanocrystals," says lead author Qian Chen, a postdoctoral fellow in Alivisatos's research group. "Now we've adopted the technique to imaging the 3D dynamics of soft materials, starting with double-strand (dsDNA) connected to gold nanocrystals and achieved nanometer resolution."

To create the cell, two opposing graphene sheets are bonded to one another by their van der Waals attraction. This forms a sealed nanoscale chamber and creates within the chamber a stable aqueous solution pocket approximately 100 nanometers in height and one micron in diameter. The single atom thick graphene membrane of the cells is essentially transparent to the TEM electron beam, minimizing the unwanted loss of imaging electrons and providing superior contrast and resolution compared to silicon-based windows. The aqueous pockets allow for up to two minutes of continuous imaging of soft material samples exposed to a 200 kilo Volt imaging electron beam. During this time, soft material samples can freely rotate.

After demonstrating that their graphene liquid cell can seal an aqueous sample solution against a TEM high vacuum, the Berkeley researchers used it to study the types of gold-dsDNA nanoconjugates that have been widely used as dynamic plasmonic probes.

"The presence of double-stranded DNA molecules incorporates the major challenges of studying the dynamics of biological samples with liquid phase TEM," says Alivisatos. "The high-contrast gold nanocrystals facilitate tracking of our specimens."

The Alivisatos and Zettl groups were able to observe dimers, pairs of gold nanoparticles, tethered by a single piece of dsDNA, and trimers, three gold nanoparticles, connected into a linear configuration by two single pieces of dsDNA. From a series of 2D projected TEM images captured while the samples were rotating, the researchers were to reconstruct 3D configuration and motions of the samples as they evolved over time.

"This information would be inaccessible with conventional TEM techniques," Chen says.

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3-D printing: The greener choice

Even Pearce, an aficionado of the make-it-yourself-and-save technology, was surprised at his study's results. It showed that making stuff on a 3D printer uses less energy -- and therefore releases less carbon dioxide -- than producing it en masse in a factory and shipping it to a warehouse.

Most 3D printers for home use, like the RepRap used in this study, are about the size of microwave ovens. They work by melting filament, usually plastic, and depositing it layer by layer in a specific pattern. Free designs for thousands of products are available from outlets like Thingiverse.com.

Common sense would suggest that mass-producing plastic widgets would take less energy per unit than making them one at a time on a 3D printer. Or, as Pearce says, "It's more efficient to melt things in a cauldron than in a test tube." However, his group found it's actually greener to make stuff at home.

They conducted life cycle impact analyses on three products: an orange juicer, a children's building block and a waterspout. The cradle-to-gate analysis of energy use went from raw material extraction to one of two endpoints: entry into the US for an item manufactured overseas or printing it a home on a 3D printer.

Pearce's group found that making the items on a basic 3D printer took from 41 percent to 64 percent less energy than making them in a factory and shipping them to the US.

Some of the savings come from using less raw material. "Children's blocks are normally made of solid wood or plastic," said Pearce, an associate professor of materials science and engineering/electrical and computer engineering. 3D printed blocks can be made partially or even completely hollow, requiring much less plastic.

Pearce's team ran their analysis with two common types of plastic filament used in 3D printing, including polylactic acid (PLA). PLA is made from renewable resources, such as cornstarch, making it a greener alternative to petroleum-based plastics. The team also did a separate analysis on products made using solar-powered 3D printers, which drove down the environmental impact even further.

"The bottom line is, we can get substantial reductions in energy and CO2 emissions from making things at home," Pearce said. "And the home manufacturer would be motivated to do the right thing and use less energy, because it costs so much less to make things on a 3D printer than to buy them off the shelf or on the Internet."

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